DEFENDING DEMOCRACY IN EXILE Policy Responses to Transnational Repression Migration G ermany is the fifth-largest host state for refugees in the world, with 1.14 million refugees and over 295,000 asylum seekers.31 Syrians account for approximately half of all refugees in Germany, followed by people from Afghanistan and Iraq. In addition to Syrians, Germany also hosts sizeable populations of diasporas vulnerable to transnational repression, including Turks, Iranians, and Eritreans.32 With so many foreign residents from targeted populations living in Germany, transnational repression is entangled with the country’s migration structures. The Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF), which coordinates the migration system, is undergirded by extensive bureaucratic processes and structures, some of which inadvertently create vulnerabilities to transnational repression. Policy responses to rising numbers of asylum seekers have increased the potential exposure to targeting by a foreign state. Nevertheless, Germany has laws and oversight mechanisms that help protect against origin states coopting German institutions to target their nationals. Eritrean and Turkish translators have allegedly altered testimonies and intimidated asylum seekers in Germany during the asylum interview process.37 Legacy of the German response to the refugee crisis Since 2015¬–16, over a million people, largely from Syria, applied for asylum in Germany. The country accepted more refugees than it was required to under EU agreements, but the issue of migration became increasingly contentious as nationalist and other segments of society pushed back on pro-migrant policy, and the government eventually walked back some of the more generous policies.33 Living in Germany generally offers refugees more protection from transnational repression than if they remained in states that have a track record of willfully violating the right to asylum and cooperating with origin 6 @FreedomHouse states. However, Germany’s response to the refugee crisis underscores the risks associated with bureaucratic efficiency. BAMF hired thousands of new interpreters to accommodate the spike in asylum applications.34 Freelance translators are required to be in good legal standing and take various “reliability” tests, but civil society organizations and asylum seekers have long called their qualifications into doubt35 and numerous reports have pointed to interpreters acting in the interest of the asylum seeker’s origin state.36 Interpreters have access to deeply personal information of vulnerable people. Information gathered by translators and shared with origin governments can result in further intimidation and surveillance, smear campaigns, and harm to family members and associates still residing in the origin country. Turkish asylum seekers have alleged that interpreters and other BAMF officials shared their personal information with Turkish government-affiliated media, leading to smear campaigns and the publication of sensitive information, including their location, by those outlets. Others from Turkey and elsewhere report harassment and intimidation by the translators. Eritrean and Turkish translators have allegedly altered testimonies and intimidated asylum seekers in Germany during the asylum interview process.37 Manipulating interviews can result in denial of asylum applications. Over the years, numerous German officials have claimed that interpreters do not engage in surveillance, harassment, or intimidation. However, some politicians called for more extensive vetting of interpreters in response to such reports of misconduct. In response to a range of concerns about interpreters, BAMF introduced new training programs, more stringent language requirements, and a code of conduct in 2017. BAMF also introduced a complaint-management system.38 Most of these reforms address concerns about translators’ qualifications, but they do not address the risk that translators may act on behalf of foreign states. The complaint system provides an opportunity for recourse if intimidation or harassment occurs, but it does not prevent harm during initial interactions and it places the burden of assessing translators on already vulnerable individuals, rather than on the German state. A second policy problem stemming from Germany’s response to the influx of refugees is an increased use of subsidiary #TransnationalRepression