Conclusion 29 over a century, and studies are beginning to bring needed attention to the ways in which Arabic-speaking immigrants have worked together to contest hostcountry discrimination, racism, and violence (Gualtieri 2009, 2020; Pennock 2017; Yadav 2016). At the same time, lumping these minority groups together as Arabs and Muslims (Brubaker 2004, 2013) glosses over the differences in voice within and between community members. For example, Libyan Americans gained a much broader and more influential voice in foreign policymaking during the Arab Spring than did Yemenis, even though both Muammar al-Gaddafi and Ali Abdullah Saleh were treated as allies in the war on terror in the years immediately preceding the revolutions. By examining these variations, we gain needed insights into how diaspora and emigrant groups are treated differently by their host-country governments according to their national identities. This book therefore provides new insights for understanding how diasporas’ “contexts of reception” respond unevenly to their calls for liberal change, human rights, and democracy at home depending on their varied identities (Bloemraad 2006, 2013). The chapters that follow also suggest the importance of moving beyond characterizations of MENA communities as “Arab” or “Muslim” by addressing the experiences of minority groups during episodes of contention. As demonstrated in the pages that follow, repressed minorities such as the Libyan Amazigh, Syrian Kurds, and South Yemenis sometimes merge their claims with the majority. However, the conditions under which they join with long-distance nationalists should not be taken for granted. As sociologist Rogers Brubaker (2015) argues, individuals with shared characteristics do not necessarily experience solidarity, trust, or a sense of “groupness.” Rather, such groupness may be the invention of the outside observer. It is for this reason that treating diaspora solidarity as a dependent variable is warranted. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009272148 Published online by Cambridge University Press